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Notas de energías renovables

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Amsterdam tendra pronto el primer barco en funcionar con hidrógeno sólido
Eva Segaar, 08-08-2022

A partir del próximo año, un barco funcionará con hidrógeno sólido en el puerto de Ámsterdam. Esto es especial, porque es el primer barco del mundo que navega con borohidruro de sodio, portador de hidrógeno.

Imagen
Así lucirá la nave de hidrógeno | Crédito: Neo Orbis

Luego de una licitación en Europa, a finales de julio se anunció que el buque de hidrógeno llamado Neo Orbis será construido por un astillero de Lauwersoog. Los astilleros holandeses de próxima generación pueden construir el barco de hidrógeno.

Primero en el mundo
El buque de hidrógeno es el resultado de un programa piloto del programa marítimo europeo. Va a ser el primer barco eléctrico del mundo que funciona con hidrógeno en forma sólida.

El borohidruro de sodio es el portador del hidrógeno que impulsará el barco. Se eligió este combustible porque porque tiene una alta densidad de energía y puede almacenarse de forma segura. El hidrógeno sólido es más seguro que el hidrógeno líquido porque es menos inflamable.

Navegación limpia
El barco debe convertirse en un ejemplo de navegación limpia. El objetivo es examinar cómo se puede utilizar el hidrógeno para el transporte interior y el dragado, por ejemplo, pero también para patrulleros y buques de guerra. El barco forma parte del proyecto europeo H2SHIPS. Esto se utilizará para investigar las posibilidades técnicas y económicas del hidrógeno en el transporte marítimo. El proyecto cuenta con un presupuesto de más de 6 millones de euros.

El puerto de Ámsterdam aspira a estar libre de emisiones para 2050. Por lo tanto, el barco de hidrógeno es un paso en la dirección correcta, escribe el puerto en su página web. Se espera iniciar la navegación de prueba en junio del próximo año.

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Reducir la dependencia de las importaciones de gas: La Compañia de Servicios Públicos Municipales de Treveris (Stadtwerke Trier) confía en la alimentación de biogás
09.08.2022 10:00

Imagen
Almacenamiento de gas en el aeropuerto de Bitburg. El biogás recogido aquí se procesará posteriormente y se introducirá en la red de gas natural. - © Stadtwerke Trier

El biogás procedente de la agricultura se procesa y se introduce en la red de gas natural. Stadtwerke Trier (SWT) quiere ampliar el proyecto.

En vista de la actual situación de escasez de gas y la explosión de precios de la energía, hay un proyecto en el Eifel que atrae una atención especial, pues muestra, a pequeña escala, cómo se puede contrarrestar la dependencia de los combustibles fósiles y de los importadores. Se trata de Biogas Partners Bitburg (BPB), que desde 2020 produce su propio biogás natural, contribuyendo así a la sostenibilidad de la región en muchos aspectos. El socio central del proyecto es SWT.

Los resultados del primer año de funcionamiento son tan prometedores que los operadores ya están planificando una segunda ubicación en Eifel y estudian si el concepto puede trasladarse también a Hunsrück. Esto porque el proyecto muestra que las plantas de biogás existentes pueden seguir operando al término de la compensación EEG (EEG-Vergutung: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed-in_tariff) y contribuir a aumentar la cuota de biogás regional.

Desde 2020, los socios de BPB recogen el biogás bruto de siete plantas regionales para refinarlo. Para transportar la energía, SWT ha construido una red de biogás de unos 45 kilómetros de longitud en el marco del proyecto Verbundnetz Westeifel, proyecto por el que los operadores han sido premiados en dos ocasiones, la última en la primavera de 2022 con el premio de plata a la sostenibilidad del periódico de economía municipal.

Uso flexible
Al introducirlo en la red de gas natural existente, el biogás natural producido en la región puede utilizarse eficazmente en diferentes lugares: en centrales de cogeneración con aprovechamiento permanente del calor o como producto (de adición) para el abastecimiento energético de la población de la región. El producto se llama Landgas Eifel y lo vende Landwerke Eifel Vertriebs-GmbH.

El control inteligente de todo el sistema a través de la inteligencia artificial permite utilizar las centrales de cogeneración instaladas en las explotaciones como opción de flexibilidad cuando sea necesario. De este modo, la infraestructura existente contribuye a equilibrar la generación fluctuante de energía eólica y solar.

"Utilizar los recursos existentes"
BPB hace una importante contribución al equilibrio energético regional en nuestra región. Muestra cómo podemos utilizar los recursos e infraestructuras existentes en favor de la protección del medio ambiente y la seguridad del suministro. Por eso estamos orgullosos de formar parte de esta asociación regional", afirma Arndt Müller, miembro del consejo de administración de SWT, que posee acciones de BPB junto con Entsorgungsbetrieb Luzia Francois GmbH y Kommunale Netze Eifel AöR. Los socios colaboraron en la instalación de la infraestructura de biogás necesaria en el marco del proyecto conjunto de la región de Westeifel.

Cuando se puso en marcha la planta hace casi dos años, la entonces ministra de Medio Ambiente, Ulrike Höfken, la elogió por demostrar "el potencial del biogás almacenable para el acoplamiento del sector". En esta forma, es un proyecto excepcional que podría y debería ser imitado en todo el país".

Metano y dióxido de carbono
SWT explica en detalle el proceso de producción en su página web. Simplificado y abreviado: los agricultores producen biogás en bruto a partir de residuos agrícolas (estiércol líquido, estiércol sólido, residuos de piensos) y materias primas renovables. Este producto bruto está compuesto por un 53% de metano (CH4) y un 46% de dióxido de carbono (CO2); se purifica y se enfría, y luego se transporta a través de una red de biogás bruto de unos 45 kilómetros de longitud hasta la planta central de procesamiento de Bitburg.

En Bitburg, el biogás bruto entrante se recoge en un tanque de almacenamiento con una capacidad de hasta 5.300 metros cúbicos y se envía a la planta de mejora, donde se elimina el CO2. El biogás se compone ahora de un 98% de metano. El CO2 separado ofrece condiciones óptimas para la construcción de una planta de conversión de energía en gas. De este modo, el hidrógeno verde generado a partir de los excedentes regionales de electricidad puede convertirse en biogás natural y almacenarse en la infraestructura existente.

Evitar los monocultivos
El gas natural varia, según la zona de la red, en sus características como combustible. Por lo tanto, SWT, como operador de la red de gas natural, asume la tarea de convertir el biogás bruto mejorado a las propiedades de combustible de la red de gas natural de Bitburg y adaptarlo a la presión de red requerida. Los socios de biogás de Bitburg han acordado limitar el uso de maíz para la producción de biogás bruto con el fin de contrarrestar el cultivo de monocultivos. Actualmente, SWT está investigando hasta qué punto los residuos regionales de la industria y el comercio pueden utilizarse para la producción de biogás y, por tanto, como sustituto del maíz. Mientras tanto, la red de gas natural se está diseñando como una red de almacenamiento por varias estacional (nw).

https://www.erneuerbareenergien.de/tech ... inspeisung
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Floating artificial leaves produce fuels from water, air and sunlight
Michael Irving, August 17, 2022

Imagen
A sample artificial leaf floating on the river Cam near the University of Cambridge

The leaf is one of nature’s most impressive little machines, able to convert sunlight, carbon dioxide and water into energy. Scientists at Cambridge have now created a type of artificial leaf that can float on water, tapping into sunlight above it and water below it to produce fuels as efficiently as the real thing.

The new study builds on the team’s previous design for an artificial leaf that used two perovskite light absorbers paired with a cobalt catalyst, and would take water and carbon dioxide in to make oxygen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The latter products two could then be captured and used to make synthetic gas (syngas), a key ingredient in plastics, fertilizers and fuels like diesel, essentially helping reduce the CO2 footprint of those products.

But the earlier design was rather bulky, with thick glass and other materials that made it a freestanding device. For the new study, the researchers wanted to slim it down, to the point that it was light enough to float on water, without losing its efficiency.

To do so, the team deposited perovskite light-absorbing layers onto thin, flexible layers of polyester coated in indium tin oxide, and used a platinum catalyst. These were then covered with ultra-thin carbon-based materials that repelled water, to protect the devices against moisture damage.

Imagen
The floating artificial leaf can convert sunlight, water and CO2 into fuels as efficiently as natural leaves Virgil Andrei

The end result was an artificial leaf that could float on the water’s surface, either splitting that water into hydrogen and oxygen or producing the ingredients for syngas. Testing the devices on nearby waterways, the team showed that per gram, the output was comparable to natural leaves – 0.58% for hydrogen and 0.053% for carbon monoxide. Those numbers might not sound like much, but they’re huge improvements over the previous iteration.

The floating artificial leaves are scalable too, with tests being conducted on versions from 1.7 cm2 (0.3 in2) up to 100 cm2 (15.5 in2), with performances that scaled with it. The team says the devices could be used to generate cleaner fuels essentially anywhere there’s water, including polluted waterways or in the open sea.

The research was published in the journal Nature.

Source: University of Cambridge

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Battery made of aluminum, sulfur and salt proves fast, safe and low-cost
Michael Irving, August 24, 2022

Imagen
The three main ingredients in the new battery, from left: aluminum, sulfur and salt

Engineers at MIT have developed a new battery design using common materials – aluminum, sulfur and salt. Not only is the battery low-cost, but it’s resistant to fire and failures, and can be charged very fast, which could make it useful for powering a home or charging electric vehicles.

Lithium-ion batteries have dominated the field for the last few decades, thanks to their reliability and high energy density. However, lithium is becoming scarcer and more expensive, and the cells can be hazardous, exploding or bursting into flames if damaged or improperly used. Cheaper, safer alternatives are needed, especially as the world transitions towards renewable energy and electric vehicles.

So the MIT team set out to design a new type of battery out of readily available, inexpensive materials. After a search and some trial and error, they settled on aluminum for one electrode and sulfur for the other, topped off with an electrolyte of molten chloro-aluminate salt. Not only are all of these ingredients cheap and common, but they’re not flammable, so there’s no risk of fire or explosion.

In tests, the team demonstrated that the new battery cells can withstand hundreds of charge cycles, and charge very quickly – in some experiments, less than a minute. The cells would cost just one sixth of the price of a similar-sized lithium-ion cell.

They can not only operate at high temperatures of up to 200 °C (392 °F) but they actually work better when hotter – at 110 °C (230 °F), the batteries charged 25 times faster than they did at 25 °C (77 °F). Importantly, the researchers say the battery doesn’t need any external energy to reach this elevated temperature – its usual cycle of charging and discharging is enough to keep it that warm.

Although the type of salt in the electrolyte was chosen because it has a low melting point, it coincidentally has another benefit – it naturally prevents the formation of dendrites. These metal tendrils, which gradually grow between the two electrodes until they cause a short circuit, are a major hurdle for batteries, particularly lithium-ion cells.

The team says that this battery design would be best suited to the scale of a few dozen kilowatt-hours, like powering an individual home from renewable sources. They could also be useful as charging stations for electric vehicles, thanks to their rapid charging. Other types of batteries, such as a recent design using molten salt electrolyte and aluminum and nickel electrodes, could work better at grid scale.

The patents for the aluminum-sulfur batteries have been licensed to a spinoff company called Avanti, co-founded by one of the authors of the study describing the design. The first order of business is to build it at scale, and run it through stress tests.

The research was published in the journal Nature.

Source: MIT

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Contra-rotating floating turbines promise unprecedented scale and power
Loz Blain, August 30, 2022

Imagen
Contra-rotating vertical turbines could radically improve yield and reduce LCoE for floating offshore wind projects, according to World Wide Wind

Norway's World Wide Wind has a radically different take on offshore wind power. These floating, vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) feature two sets of blades, tuned to contra-rotate – and they promise more than double the output of today's biggest turbines.

Taking wind farms way offshore can certainly help make them less obtrusive, and open up a lot more opportunities – but as the ocean gets deeper, conventional horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) begin making less and less sense. HAWTs need to hold a lot of heavy components – drivetrains, gearboxes, generators and their colossal blades – right up the top of a long pole, so mounting them on floating platforms that don't want to tip over is a huge challenge – not to mention maintaining the business end of a turbine so far above the ground.

Some engineers and operators believe this could be a niche where VAWTs could shine instead. Their blades reach upward, but all their other heavy bits are at the bottom, so their natural tendency is to sit upright. Also, they can accept wind energy from any direction, rather than needing to turn to face into the wind, cutting down on some more heavy gear you'd find up high on a HAWT. They're typically far less efficient than a regular three-blade HAWT, sucking less energy out of a given breeze, but on the other hand, you can place them closer together without a drop in performance, meaning they could potentially suck more energy out of a given patch of ocean.


Imagen
The top turbine, mounted to a central blade, spins in one direction, while the bottom, and the tower's exterior, spins in the other, with the generator at the bottom

And so to the device at hand. World Wide Wind has proposed an entirely new type of floating VAWT specifically designed for offshore deployment and massive scalability. Indeed, it's two VAWTs in one; the lower one is fixed to the outer casing of the tower, and set to rotate one way, and the upper one is mounted to a shaft running right up the middle of the tower, and it's set to rotate the other way.

Under the surface, one turbine is fixed to the rotor, the other to the "stator," doubling the relative speed of rotation as compared to a static stator, and generating a whole bunch of electricity we can burn our toast with. The company calls this a contra-rotating vertical turbine, or CRVT.

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Producción de hidrógeno verde más barata mediante la nanotecnología
Sabine Sluijters, 12 agosto 2022

Imagen
Groene waterstof kan ingezet worden als alternatief voor fossiele brandstoffen in de industrie en het transport en voor opslag van duurzame energie

Los costes de producción del hidrógeno verde pueden reducirse considerablemente gracias a la nanotecnología. Una empresa emergente de Singapur aporta la prueba.

Nanotecnología del hidrógeno
El hidrógeno verde puede utilizarse como alternativa a los combustibles fósiles en la industria y el transporte y para el almacenamiento de energía sostenible.

El hidrógeno verde es una parte importante de la transición energética. Puede contribuir a una industria química más sostenible y servir de alternativa a los combustibles contaminantes en, por ejemplo, la navegación o el transporte pesado. También puede utilizarse para absorber los picos de producción de energía eólica y solar.

Reducción de los costes de producción de hidrógeno
Pero la producción de hidrógeno verde sigue siendo más cara que la variante gris hecha con gas natural. Una empresa emergente de Singapur afirma ahora encontrado una innovación que puede reducir significativamente los costes de producción del hidrógeno.

La empresa se dedica a la nanotecnología de separación del electrolizador, el dispositivo que produce el hidrógeno, a nivel nanométrico. La electrólisis consume mucha energía y algunas variantes utilizan metales raros y preciosos, como el platino y el iridio.

Duplicar la producción de hidrógeno
SungreenH2 se centra en los electrodos que dividen el agua. Al cambiar la nanoestructura del electrodo, aumenta la superficie activa. Según la empresa, esto permite duplicar la producción de hidrógeno y se necesita un 30% menos de metales raros para la electrólisis.

Es una buena noticia, porque supone una reducción considerable de los costes. "Cambiando la nanoestructura duplican la superficie", dice el profesor de Sistemas Energéticos del Futuro Ad van Wijk, de la Universidad Técnica de Delft. "Eso significa que necesitan menos materiales y eso reduce los costes. No obstante, duda que puedan producir el doble de hidrógeno. "El doble de superficie no significa automáticamente el doble de producción de hidrógeno, solo que necesitas menos material".

Metales raros
La innovación de SungreenH2 es aplicable en todo tipo de electrolizadores. De los distintos tipos de electrolizadores, los electrolizadores alcalinos y los de membrana electrolítica de polímero (PEM) son ya muy utilizados. La innovación de SungreenH2 será especialmente beneficiosa en los tipos que utilizan muchos metales raros, como el PEM.

"El hecho de que el platino y el iridio se utilicen como catalizadores en ese electrodo acelera el proceso. Un electrolizador alcalino como el que Shell está instalando actualmente en el puerto de Rotterdam no contiene estos metales", dice Van Wijk. "El electrolizador PEM sí contiene estos metales. Se trata de una tecnología algo más reciente y más cara que la alcalina. Pero la ventaja es que puede arrancar y parar más rápido, lo que es especialmente útil en la producción de hidrógeno directamente vinculada a la energía eólica o solar, debido a la fluctuación del suministro de electricidad".

Nanotecnología
Según Van Wijk, la nanotecnología puede contribuir enormemente a reducir los costes de las energías renovables. "No sólo con electrolizadores, sino también con baterías y células solares". Esto puede hacerse de varias maneras. TUDelft cuenta con un equipo de investigación que coloca los metales molécula a molécula en los electrodos. "Eso también puede ahorrar un factor de cien en material. Todos estos métodos son muy útiles para reducir los costes de las tecnologías sostenibles.

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Última edición por Fermat el Sab Sep 03, 2022 5:27 am, editado 1 vez en total.
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Aluminum-gallium powder bubbles hydrogen out of dirty water
Loz Blain, September 01, 2022

Imagen
A new powder identified by UCSC researchers can be dumped into seawater to rapidly release 90% of its theoretical maximum of hydrogen

“We don’t need any energy input, and it bubbles hydrogen like crazy. I’ve never seen anything like it,” said UCSC Professor Scott Oliver, describing a new aluminum-gallium nanoparticle powder that generates H2 when placed in water – even seawater.

Aluminum by itself rapidly oxidizes in water, stripping the O out of H2O and releasing hydrogen as a byproduct. This is a short-lived reaction though, because in most cases the metal quickly attains a microscopically thin coating of aluminum oxide that seals it off and puts an end to the fun.

But chemistry researchers at UC Santa Cruz say they've found a cost-effective way to keep the ball rolling. Gallium has long been known to remove the aluminum oxide coating and keep the aluminum in contact with water to continue the reaction, but previous research had found that aluminum-heavy combinations had a limited effect.

So when chemistry/biochemistry Professor Bakthan Singaram found out that student Isai Lopez was playing with aluminum/gallium hydrogen production in his kitchen at home, there didn't seem to be anything particularly special about the idea.

“He wasn’t doing it in a scientific way, so I set him up with a graduate student to do a systematic study," Singaram said. "I thought it would make a good senior thesis for him to measure the hydrogen output from different ratios of gallium and aluminum.”

When Lopez decided to extend the experiment to test gallium-heavy mixtures, things got a little weird. Hydrogen production went through the roof, and the team started trying to figure out why these mixtures were behaving so fundamentally differently.

After electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction studies, they realized that the most effective mix, three parts gallium to one part aluminum, was indeed doing something the lower ratios weren't. Not only was the gallium dissolving the aluminum oxide, it was also causing the aluminum to separate into nanoparticles, and keeping them separate.

“The gallium separates the nanoparticles and keeps them from aggregating into larger particles,” Singaram said. “People have struggled to make aluminum nanoparticles, and here we are producing them under normal atmospheric pressure and room temperature conditions.”

With the aluminum so finely separated, its surface area is maximized and the reaction with water was spectacularly efficient, pulling out 90% of the theoretical maximum amount of hydrogen possible for a given amount of aluminum. In a study published in ACS Nano Materials, the researchers report that a single gram of their gallium-aluminum alloy will rapidly liberate 130 ml of hydrogen when placed in water.

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A sustainable battery with a biodegradable electrolyte made from crab shells
Cell Press, September 1, 2022

Accelerating demand for renewable energy and electric vehicles is sparking a high demand for the batteries that store generated energy and power engines. But the batteries behind these sustainability solutions aren't always sustainable themselves. In a paper publishing September 1 in the journal Matter, scientists create a zinc battery with a biodegradable electrolyte from an unexpected source -- crab shells.

"Vast quantities of batteries are being produced and consumed, raising the possibility of environmental problems," says lead author Liangbing Hu, director of the University of Maryland's Center for Materials Innovation. "For example, polypropylene and polycarbonate separators, which are widely used in Lithium-ion batteries, take hundreds or thousands of years to degrade and add to environmental burden."

Batteries use an electrolyte to shuttle ions back and forth between positively and negatively charged terminals. An electrolyte can be a liquid, paste, or gel, and many batteries use flammable or corrosive chemicals for this function. This new battery, which could store power from large-scale wind and solar sources, uses a gel electrolyte made from a biological material called chitosan.

"Chitosan is a derivative product of chitin. Chitin has a lot of sources, including the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of crustaceans, and squid pens," says Hu. "The most abundant source of chitosan is the exoskeletons of crustaceans, including crabs, shrimps and lobsters, which can be easily obtained from seafood waste. You can find it on your table."

A biodegradable electrolyte means that about two thirds of the battery could be broken down by microbes -- this chitosan electrolyte broke down completely within five months. This leaves behind the metal component, in this case zinc, rather than lead or lithium, which could be recycled.

"Zinc is more abundant in earth's crust than lithium," says Hu. "Generally speaking, well-developed zinc batteries are cheaper and safer." This zinc and chitosan battery has an energy efficiency of 99.7% after 1000 battery cycles, making it a viable option for storing energy generated by wind and solar for transfer to power grids.

Hu and his team hope to continue working on making batteries even more environmentally friendly, including the manufacturing process. "In the future, I hope all components in batteries are biodegradable," says Hu. "Not only the material itself but also the fabrication process of biomaterials."

Story Source: Materials provided by Cell Press.

Journal Reference:
Meiling Wu, Ye Zhang, Lin Xu, Chunpeng Yang, Min Hong, Mingjin Cui, Bryson C. Clifford, Shuaiming He, Shuangshuang Jing, Yan Yao, Liangbing Hu. A sustainable chitosan-zinc electrolyte for high-rate zinc-metal batteries. Matter, 2022; DOI: 10.1016/j.matt.2022.07.015

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2 ... 135827.htm
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La misma información en español:

Baterías sostenibles hechas de cangrejo y langosta podrían ser el futuro de las energías renovables
Esta pila de zinc y quitosano tiene una eficiencia energética del 99,7 % tras 1.000 ciclos de batería.

Imagen
Los caparazones de los cangrejos son una fuente abundante de quitosano.

El avance de las energías renovables y los vehículos eléctricos está aumentando la demanda de baterías, que no siempre son sostenibles, pero un grupo de científicos estadounidenses ha encontrado una solución en los caparazones de los cangrejos.

Se trata de una batería sostenible realizada con zinc y un electrolito biodegradable sacado de las cáscaras de ese crustáceo, según publica Matter.

Las baterías utilizan un electrolito para transportar iones entre los polos cargados positiva y negativamente, el cual puede ser un líquido pasta o gel, para lo que muchas pilas usan productos químicos inflamables o corrosivos.

Además, los separadores de polipropileno y policarbonato, muy utilizados en las baterías de iones de litio, tardan cientos o miles de años en degradarse y aumentan la carga medioambiental, según Liangbing Hu de la Universidad de Maryland y firmante del estudio.

Material biológico quitosano
La nueva pila que, según el equipo, podría almacenar energía procedente de fuentes eólicas y solares a gran escala, utiliza un electrolito de gel hecho de un material biológico llamado quitosano.

Hu explicó que se trata de un producto derivado de la quitina, la cual procede de muchas fuentes como las paredes celulares de los hongos, los exoesqueletos de los crustáceos y las plumas del interior de los calamares.

La fuente más abundante de quitosano son los exoesqueletos de los crustáceos, incluidos los cangrejos, las gambas y las langostas, que pueden obtenerse fácilmente de los desechos del marisco.

Dos tercios de la pila podrían ser descompuestos por microbios
Un electrolito biodegradable significa que unos dos tercios de la pila podrían ser descompuestos por los microbios. El que usa esta batería se descompone por completo en cinco meses, lo que deja solo el componente metálico, en este caso el zinc, en lugar del plomo o el litio, que podría reciclarse.

El zinc es más abundante en la corteza terrestre que el litio y, "en general", las baterías "bien desarrolladas" que usan este componente "son más baratas y seguras", dijo el investigador.

"En el futuro, espero que todos los componentes de las baterías sean biodegradables", dijeron. "No solo el material en sí, sino también el proceso de fabricación de los biomateriales".

Esta pila de zinc y quitosano tiene una eficiencia energética del 99,7 % tras 1.000 ciclos de batería, "lo que la convierte en una opción viable para almacenar la energía generada por el viento y la energía solar para transferirla a las redes eléctricas".

FEW (EFE, Matter, Cell Press)
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T-Omega re-thinks floating offshore wind turbines for huge cost savings
Loz Blain, September 08, 2022

Imagen
Floating offshore wind turbines don't need to scale up to gargantuan proportions to provide cheap energy, says T-Omega – they just need a ground-up redesign that's not driven by on-shore thinkingT-Omega Wind

All the world's greatest wind power resources are offshore – often a long way offshore, where the water's so deep that it's impractical to build typical fan-on-a-stick wind turbines with bases sunk deep into the sea floor. Floating wind, at this stage, is so vastly expensive to build, deploy and maintain that it ends up costing two to three times as much per kilowatt-hour of energy as fixed-bottom offshore installations.

There's a huge opportunity here for technological advancement, and companies like Norway's World Wide Wind are proposing some pretty radical ideas in the space. A lot of the energy cost comes down to the size, weight and materials involved in the structure of the turbine, along with the logistical issues and specialized equipment needed to build, install and maintain the things.

Boston startup T-Omega Wind says it's prototyped and tested a unique floating offshore wind turbine design that can withstand massive storms and hundred-foot waves, but at 20% the weight and around 30% the price of conventional designs – not to mention super-simple deployment and installation – unlocking an affordable way to exploit the world's best wind resources.

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Because there's so little under the waterline, T-Omega's turbines can easily be towed around by a single, cheap tug, meaning that maintenance can be done at a port, rather than out at sea using incredibly expensive and specialised shipsT-Omega Wind

"All offshore floating turbines except ours are like icebergs," says T-Omega Co-Founder and Chief Engineer Jim Papadopoulos over a video chat. "Whatever they've got above the water, they've got four times as much below the water. If they've got 1,500 tons above the water, they've got 6,000 tons under the water. That's a big expense. We put almost nothing under the water. That's one of the big differences in cost, and movability, and launching."

Conventional floating turbines, says Papadopoulos, use technology that was only ever designed for land. "Right now, a Vestas or GE-style turbine, they have a whacking great rotor, with a shaft on one side. You can engineer almost anything, but with a single-sided shaft, that shaft is massive, and requires some pretty special bearings. And because of the forces that go through that design, there's very little margin for it to change angle. So they have to hold them dead still, perfectly upright – hence, the heavy, expensive base. They're imbued with a land-style philosophy, and it's incredibly expensive."

T-Omega's approach is completely different, starting at the turbine and generator itself, which mount to a double-sided axle shaft that's rigidly supported at both ends. Thus, rather than a single, heavyweight pole, the turbine is supported by four much slimmer legs, reaching down to lightweight, wide-spaced floating base platforms. It's much like the way a Ferris wheel is suspended; there's a reason why they don't build those on a single pole.



Will it capsize?
"If you took a wooden door and put it in the water, it's not going to tip over," says Papadopoulos. "It's the width compared to the height. So yeah, we have a very wide base compared to any other floating design. To lift the floats out of the water, you're looking at an ungodly amount of torque – it's much more than the generator torque."

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Un invento coreano pone al alcance el hidrógeno verde barato
Sabine Sluijters, 05 septiembre 2022

Científicos coreanos han encontrado una alternativa a los costosos metales terrestres necesarios para fabricar hidrógeno verde. Esto acerca un poco más la producción masiva de hidrógeno verde.

Imagen
En lugar del costoso platino, los científicos utilizan un trozo de tela para producir hidrógeno

Producir hidrógeno verde mediante electrólisis sigue siendo caro. Esto es en parte porque para el proceso se necesita metales raros como el platino, que es un metal precioso escaso y más caro que el oro. Científicos coreanos afirman ahora haber encontrado una alternativa para este metal, lo que podría reducir el coste de la fabricación de hidrógeno verde en un 20%.

Alternativa al platino
Los científicos sustituyen el platino por una pieza textil que primero "carbonizan" a temperaturas de 900 grados. Esto en sí es un logro, pues la carbonización normalmente se produce a temperaturas de 2.000 grados. La carbonización convierte el tejido en un nuevo tipo de material que conduce muy bien la electricidad. A continuación, sumergen el textil carbonizado en una solución de níquel. Al someterlo a corriente, la solución de níquel se une al tejido, creando un material nuevo.

Producción masiva de hidrógeno verde
El descubrimiento, publicado a finales de agosto en la revista científica Energy & Environmental Science de la Royal Society of Chemistry, es importante porque demuestra que el hidrógeno verde también puede producirse sin utilizar metales raros como el platino. Además, se necesitaba menos voltaje para producir hidrógeno. El invento acerca un poco más la producción masiva y barata de hidrógeno verde.



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New solar device can pull hydrogen straight from the air
B. David Zarley, September 14, 2022

Using solar power and special materials, researchers have made 99% pure hydrogen.

Hydrogen fuel is an attractive candidate for a clean energy source, since it burns very clean. But on Earth, hydrogen is almost always bound up with other elements, and separating it requires a ton of energy. Almost all hydrogen today is created with natural gas. The main alternative to this process uses electricity, which is often generated via fossil fuels, thereby defeating the purpose, and clean water, also a precious resource. But researchers with the University of Melbourne and University of Manchester have developed a way to harness solar power and the very air around us to produce truly green hydrogen.

By pulling water from the air and applying electricity provided by solar panels, they can rend the H2O molecules, producing pure hydrogen (H2). The technology may one day allow for hydrogen production even in places severely lacking in water — like the Australian desert.

“We see an area that has no groundwater and think it’s unsuitable for hydrogen production. But there is always abundant fresh water in air,” study lead Gang Kevin Li, a senior chemical engineering lecturer at Melbourne, said in a statement.

“Even Alice Springs, which is in part of [the] desert, has around 20 per cent relative humidity. This is more than enough for us to produce hydrogen onsite using renewable energy.”

Hydrogen’s potential: There is great power in hydrogen fuel — enough to lift NASA’s rockets into space, the agency having turned to liquid hydrogen all the way back in the 1950s. Handing gravity an L is only a small fraction of our hydrogen use, however; according to the federal Energy Information Administration, the majority of hydrogen consumed goes to refining petroleum (ironically), producing fertilizer, processing foods, and treating metals.

Hydrogen fuel cells combine hydrogen and oxygen, a reaction that creates electricity, heat, and water. So, where’s our hydrogen-powered everything?

“There’s virtually no pure hydrogen on Earth because it’s so reactive,” Paul Ronney, a professor of aerospace and mechanical engineering at USC unaffiliated with the research, said. According to Ronney, most of the hydrogen we have is made from methane, in a CO2 and greenhouse gas emitting process; turning water into hydrogen, via a process called electrolysis, requires electricity.

“To get that, we’re back to burning fossil fuels,” Ronney said.

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NB! Editados espacios por legibilidad.
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Esta noticia viene del mismo fabricante, así que hay que tomarla con pinzas. En todo caso, es interesante.

Thyssenkrupp may have just cleared the path to bulk green steelmaking
Loz Blain, September 28, 2022

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Thyssenkrupp has announced a US$1.9 billion investment that will accelerate its green steelmaking transition, using promising new technology that obviates the need for high-grade iron oreThyssenkrupp

German steel giant Thyssenkrupp is investing US$1.9 billion in a hydrogen-powered direct-reduction system that can create high-quality steel without needing the rare, high-grade iron ore required by most green steel processes. This could open the floodgates.

Every ton of conventionally produced steel puts nearly two tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and humankind uses so much of the stuff that steel production contributes somewhere between 7 to 8% of global carbon emissions every year. Cleaning up this massive emissions disaster over the next quarter century is imperative, and a daunting challenge.

But the technology to make green steel is well understood and already in use. You stop using fossil-fired blast furnaces to release the oxygen from iron ore, and you stop using baked coal, or coke, as a reductant to add the critical small percentage of carbon to your iron. Instead, you use green hydrogen in a direct reduction process, both as your reductant and to power an electric arc furnace to supply the heat. Instead of tons of carbon dioxide, this process emits water.

Sweden's H2 Green Steel has the jump on the green steel market for the time being. Its $3 billion facilities are expected to pump out some 5 million tons of high-quality zero-emissions steel annually by 2030. But the mainstream is making moves to catch up; ArcelorMittal, the world's second-largest steel producer, will be producing 1.6 million tons of green steel a year by 2025 at a new zero-carbon plant in Spain.

Now Germany's Thyssenkrupp has committed the funds to replace one of the giant blast furnaces at its Duisburg site with a direct-reduction system, which will begin producing around 2.5 million tons of "low-CO2" steel from 2026.

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While the new direct reduction plant won't make totally green steel, it paves the way for much more widespread decarbonization in the steel sector Thyssenkrupp

While it's not totally green – Thyssenkrupp plans to feed the iron produced in the direct-reduction facility into melting units, and send the hot iron back through its existing plant structure – this design could still be of enormous significance to the wider steel industry, because it can reportedly produce high-quality steel using lower-grade iron than other direct reduction processes, as Renew Economypoints out.

That's a big deal, and not just because the super-high-quality (>67% Fe) iron ore required by most electric arc furnaces is more expensive than lower-grade ore, pushing up the price. More importantly, only some 4% of today's global iron ore supply meets this mark, so the raw materials don't exist to decarbonize the entire steelmaking sector.

Thyssenkrupp's process allows it to use blast-furnace-grade iron, according to the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis, removing any chance of a materials bottleneck and clearing the path for a much quicker shift to green – or at least low-emissions – steelmaking.

Source: Thyssenkrupp via Renew Economy
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World's largest flow battery connected to the grid in China
Nick Lavars, October 02, 2022

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The Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station was connected to the grid on September 29DICP

The Chinese city of Dalian has just switched on a world-leading new energy storage system, expected to supply enough power for up to 200,000 residents each day. With an initial capacity of 400 MWh and output of 100 MW, the Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station will serve as a power bank for the city and assist in its uptake of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar.

As a vanadium flow battery, the new energy storage system differs from the common lithium-ion batteries in use in today's electric vehicles and smartphones. They use massive tanks to store chemical energy in the form of liquid electrolytes, which can be converted into electricity by passing the fluid through a special membrane.

This makes flow batteries a relatively cheap energy storage solution, and an attractive one when it comes to renewable energy as they can store it away for months at a time. This lends itself well to the storage of wind and solar, which can be intermittent by nature, and could see these sources leveraged to help cities deal with spikes in energy demand.

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Like other flow battery systems, the Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station stores its energy in huge tanksDICP

We’ve seen this idea explored through a 120-MW redox flow battery built in underground salt caverns, supplying enough daily power for 75,000 homes in Jemgum in northwestern Germany. The Dalian Flow Battery Energy Storage Peak-shaving Power Station won’t quite meet this output to begin with, but is designed to be scaled up and eventually output 200 MW with an 800-MWh capacity.

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Un poco carácter de propaganda (es una nota de la misma compañia), pero interesante.

Oil-eating microbes excrete the world's cheapest "clean" hydrogen
Loz Blain, October 03, 2022

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Cemvita says its oil-eating, hydrogen-excreting microbes can turn depleted oil wells into clean hydrogen production facilities Cemvita

Texan company Cemvita is promising clean hydrogen at less than US$1/kg, after testing a fascinating new technique in the lab and the field. The idea is to pump specially developed microbes into depleted oil wells, where they'll eat oil and excrete hydrogen.

Humans have been harnessing tiny single-celled and multicellular organisms to perform work for much longer than we've known what they were. The earliest beers known to history were brewed some 13,000 years ago, making systematic use of a microscopic fungus called yeast, and its habit of eating sugars and starches and excreting carbon dioxide and ethanol. That's about 7,000 years before recorded history was known to history.

Microbes can be incredibly hard workers – Louis Pasteur once described yeast's work on glucose as the equivalent of a 200-pound person chopping two million pounds of wood in two days. But their ability to party is critical as well; in two days under the right conditions, 100 yeast cells can multiply into 400 billion.

Now that humans are beginning to get a handle on genetic engineering, a huge range of other possibilities are opening up. And with the rise of artificial intelligence, it's becoming easier than ever before for scientists to identify which bits of the genetic code are responsible for a microbe's desirable behaviors, and repeat those sections to juice these little creatures up for higher and higher performance.

One company engaged in such work is Cemvita, which is concentrating at present on microbes that feast on hydrocarbons – in particular, crude oil – and ferment them, excreting hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, it's not accurate to describe this release as a belch or a fart – believe me, nothing would make me happier, but in this case the gases simply bubble out through the cell walls without any celebratory audio.

This ties in beautifully with the way oil wells work; they start out at maximum production when they're first tapped, sometimes even squirting out of the earth under pressure. But then things gradually dwindle until it costs more in energy to push or pull the remaining oil out than you can sell it for. So there's plenty of oil left in depleted wells, as well as some handy infrastructure in place at each project. Cemvita wants to turn all these wells into biological hydrogen farms.

https://assets.newatlas.com/dims4/defau ... 1%20pm.png
Microbes, nutrients and inhibitors, where necessary, will be pumped down into depleted oil wells. Hydrogen will bubble out, to be captured and sold, and carbon dioxide will be separated out for sequestration. Cemvita

So, it presumably stops up the top of the well, before pumping a heap of specially bred microbes down into its murky depths in a stream of recycled water. The microbes go to work, feasting, excreting and multiplying, and Cemvita captures the gases as they exit the top of the well, separating them into hydrogen for processing and sale, and carbon dioxide for sequestration. The company is able to send nutrients and inhibitors down into the well to keep things under control and moving in the right direction.

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Saint-Nazaire: arranca el primer parque eólico marítimo de Francia
10 oct 2022, l’Energeek

Imagen
Saint-Nazaire pone en marcha el primer parque eólico marino de Francia. El 7 de octubre de 2022, el parque eólico marino de Saint-Nazaire comenzó a producir electricidad, convirtiéndose en el primer parque operativo de este tipo en Francia.

Arranque del uso del parque eólico marino de Saint-Nazaire, el primero en Francia
Debería alcanzar su máxima potencia de producción a fin de año, lo que la convierte en la punta de lanza del objetivo de Emmanuel Macron de 50 parques eólicos marinos para 2050.

El 22 de septiembre de 2022, el presidente de la República Emmanuel Macron inauguró el primer parque eólico marino de Francia, en Saint-Nazaire, la primera piedra de su objetivo, anunciado en febrero de 2022, de cincuenta de parques de este tipo en 2050, para un total de 40 GW de potencia instalada.

Este 7 de octubre de 2022 marcó el inicio de la operación de este parque eólico de Saint-Nazaire, con 80 aerogeneradores de 6 MW cada uno, ubicados a unos quince kilómetros de la costa, espaciados cada uno aproximadamente un kilómetro, y con palas de 75 metros de largo -por un total de 480 MW de potencia instalada.

“Son 12 los cables que conectan los aerogeneradores entre sí en grupos de 6 o 7, para llegar luego a la subestación. Allí, la corriente se transforma para poder ser enviada a tierra”, detalla el director del parque eólico marino de Saint-Nazaire, Olivier de La Laurencie.

Los aerogeneradores producen electricidad a un voltaje de 33.000 voltios: la subestación es el transformador que la convierte a 225.000 voltios, desde donde será “enviada al sistema interconectado nacional donde será transferida a dicho voltaje”, completa el Sr. de La Laurencia.

Producción de electricidad equivalente al consumo de 700.000 hogares
Ningún empleado estará estacionado permanentemente en el parque, que cubre 78 km²: será monitoreado a distancia desde la base de mantenimiento en el puerto de La Turballe, equipada con una sala de coordinación marítima con múltiples pantallas para determinar la posición de los barcos que se mueven al pie de los aerogeneradores.

"Es un poco como la torre de control del sitio", resume Fabrice Le Tual, gerente de operaciones y mantenimiento, y agrega que alrededor de un centenar de personas trabajarán en el mantenimiento del parque durante los 25 años que estará en funcionamiento.

Operado por EDF, el parque aumentará gradualmente su potencia y estará completamente en servicio a finales de 2022. Debería producir el equivalente al consumo de 700.000 hogares, o el 20% de la población del Loira.-Atlántico.

Tras los de Saint-Nazaire, los aerogeneradores del parque marino de Fécamp se instalarán “el próximo verano” y los del parque de Courseulles-sur-Mer (Calvados) “a partir del año 2024”, especifica Cédric Le Bousse, director Energías Renovables Marinas Francia de EDF Renouvelables.

https://lenergeek.com/2022/10/10/saint- ... er-france/
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Avance de TNO: se necesitan mucho menos metales escasos en nuevo electrolizador
Teun Schroeder, 24/10/2022

Los investigadores de TNO han desarrollado un electrolizador con 200 veces menos iridio que el estándar. Gracias a la innovación, la dependencia de esta materia prima es considerablemente menor. Por el momento, el iridio sigue siendo indispensable para la tecnología necesaria para producir hidrógeno verde.

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La creciente demanda de electrolizadores aumenta la dependencia de los metales escasos | Crédito: Adobe Stock

El avance de TNO es posible porque los investigadores lograron utilizar una capa ultrafina de iridio como catalizador. La técnica se llama deposición de capa atómica espacial (sALD) y se ideó originalmente para aplicar capas delgadas de materiales en áreas grandes, como en pantallas de televisores y teléfonos inteligentes. TNO ahora ha utilizado este mismo método para fabricar electrolizadores.

Metales de meteoritos
TNO estudió previamente que la producción de electrolizadores está en peligro debido a la escasez de metales escasos como el iridio y el platino. Dentro de diez años, el mundo necesitará más iridio del que está disponible. Además, dependemos de algunos países como Rusia y Sudáfrica para el suministro del metal, que se encuentra, por ejemplo, en meteoritos.

Reciclar y reutilizar
El electrolizador que TNO desarrolló con la nueva tecnología funcionó en el 25 al 46 por ciento de la generación actual de electrolizadores. Sin embargo, la agencia de investigación habla de un gran avance porque 'el rendimiento ya está en promedio en un tercio' del estándar. Una ventaja adicional es que el uso limitado de iridio hace que las nuevas membranas sean más fáciles de reciclar y reutilizar.

Mejora necesaria
Según TNO, la tecnología ahora debe ampliarse para probar su funcionamiento en la práctica. “Probar en el laboratorio que la tecnología funciona es excelente”, dice Lennart van der Burg, experto en hidrógeno de TNO en el comunicado de prensa. “Pero es necesario un mayor desarrollo para mejorar la vida útil y la eficiencia y poder producirlo a escala”.

Europa quiere una capacidad de producción de hidrógeno verde de 6 gigavatios en 2024 y 40 gigavatios en 2040. Si depende de TNO y otros institutos de investigación europeos, Europa establecerá requisitos para el desarrollo de electrolizadores con el fin de limitar el uso de materiales escasos cuando sea necesario.

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Al parecer medio propaganda, medio artículo, pero interesante de todos modos.

New motionless tech harnesses wind energy from rooftops
By Kristin Houser, October 21, 2022
It generates as much power as a solar array in 10% of the space.

Imagen

A new motionless wind energy system promises to increase the amount of renewable energy generated from rooftops — helping us meet our goal of a future free of fossil fuels.

The challenge: Electricity and heat are the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions, so transitioning those sectors to renewables, such as wind and solar, is key to combating climate change, and this transition doesn’t just have to happen at the utility scale, either.

Thanks to a steady decrease in the price of solar panels, rooftop solar installations are on the rise in the US. But because the sun doesn’t always shine and batteries are expensive, most solar-powered buildings end up pulling electricity from the grid, too, continuing our dependence on fossil fuels.

Wind turbines can generate electricity at night and in cloudy conditions, making them well suited to complement solar tech. But small turbines can’t generate much power, and large ones are better suited to open plains, hills, or the ocean than residential rooftops.

“When it comes to residential, most areas have limits of towers you can install on your house or something, so you can’t really get a turbine up very high,” Matthew Lackner, director of the University of Massachusetts’ Wind Energy Center, who wasn’t involved in the development of the new system, told Popular Science in May.

The idea: University of Houston spinoff Aeromine Technologies has developed a rooftop wind energy system that’s more compact than a typical turbine and works with wind speeds as low as 5 miles per hour — traditional small turbines require average wind speeds of at least 9 mph.

One Aeromine unit can generate as much power as an array of 16 solar panels while taking up 10% of the roof space, and when manufactured at scale, the system could generate significantly more energy than a rooftop solar installation of the same price, according to Aeromine.



How it works: Aeromine’s wind energy system doesn’t look anything like a traditional turbine — instead of spinning blades atop a thin pole, it features a motionless, tank-like cylinder flanked by airfoils.

“As the wind hits those airfoils, it creates a negative pressure that sucks the wind that’s hitting the building through an internal propeller on the bottom of the unit, which creates the energy production which connects directly to the building,” David Asarnow, Aeromine’s cofounder and CEO, told Fast Company.

Aeromine envisions 20 to 40 of these units lined up along whatever edge of a rooftop faces the direction that gets the most wind, leaving room in the center of the roof for solar panels (though the units could create too much shade depending on the direction of the sun).

“I like to think of this as kind of disruptive and complimentary [sic] to the solar business,” said Asarnow. “Our production can be stronger. At the same time, when you pair the two, you really have a path for on-site energy independence.”

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A rendered image of an Aeromine wind energy system. Credit: Aeromine Technologies

Looking ahead: Aeromine’s wind energy system couldn’t be installed on slanted roofs or single-family homes, but it could make on-site wind power generation possible for warehouses, apartment buildings, or other large, flat-roofed structures.

The company has already validated its rooftop wind energy tech through joint research with Sandia National Laboratories and Texas Tech University. It is now piloting the system with several companies and expects to have a product ready for the commercial market in 2023.

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East Africa’s geothermal green energy revolution
Andrea Bolitho, euronews, 15/11/2022

In Kenya's Olkaria, on the edge of Hell’s Gate National Park, are five power plants that produce around 800MW of energy - that’s enough to power more than four million homes a year.

Here, the sound of green energy is like thousands of kettles boiling at once; it comes from the underground heat and steam and is the reason Kenya's now the 7th largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, and is blazing a trail in the East African region.

What is geothermal?
The tectonic plates here - and across Africa’s Great East Rift Valley - are being forced together or wrenched apart, pushing super-heated steam close to the Earth’s surface.

Japan and other international partners have been working with Kenya to develop geothermal power for decades.

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Geothermal power plant in KenyaEuronews

This geothermal power means Kenya - which also relies on hydroelectric power - can better cope with the effects of climate change.

Cyrus Karingithi is from Geothermal Resource Development, Kengen, Olkaria.

"We have a lot of droughts which have been with us for quite some time now, for the last 3 years and the country has not felt the impact of the drought in terms of power generation because of the geothermal installed in Kenya."

And Olkaria is just the beginning, as Cyrus explains.

"Our geothermal potential is 10,000 MW from 23 sites and what we have installed to date is just from two sites, here in Olkaria and a small plant in Eburru. So we have a huge potential that is untapped, actually, I don’t think we have tapped one percent."

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Hell’s Gate National Park, on the edge of Olkaria in Kenya, which has five power plantsEuronews

The Japanese International Cooperation Agency - JICA’s relationship with Kenya goes back decades and Japan has invested 852 million USD in Olkaria.

Iwama Hajime is the Chief Representative of JICA in Kenya.

"They can utilise their own resources, there is no need to import energy. The price of geothermal power is very low and it is a clean, zero carbon emission energy."

Geothermal opportunities across East Africa’s Great Rift Valley
Geothermal opportunities exist across East Africa’s Great Rift Valley - in Ethiopia, a geothermal power plant in the Aluto Langano region is under construction.

Ethiopia's main power source, hydroelectric, has become unstable due to the impact of climate change. But it has abundant geothermal potential - approximately 10,000 MW of electric power. In Djibouti, geothermal power production is in its infancy.

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Geothermal opportunities exist across Africa’s Rift ValleyEuronews

Narrowing down the perfect location takes time and includes satellite and then surface surveys, as well as gas analysis.

Geothermal exploration demands money upfront - one well costs about 500 million USD.

Masuda Kanako is the Project Formulation Advisor, for JICA in Djibouti.

"There is 1000MW of potential in Djibouti and the current demand for electricity in Djibouti is several hundred megawatts so if we can develop one-tenth of the potential this will be a big impact on the energy mix of this country."

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Geothermal exploration demands money upfront - one well costs about 500 million USD.Euronews

Outside of the main towns and cities electricity can be scarce but in the village of As Eyla villagers have near round-the-clock power thanks to solar, and it's been life-changing.

Mohamed Kabila is a shopkeeper here.

"Today we have solar electricity. Before it was dark, really dark and it was very hot, we couldn't stay inside, and we had to close at 11. Today, we stay inside all day. Inside, there is also a freezer with water, Coke, and Fanta, and we can keep food, meat, chicken, everything. Before, we used to pay for diesel, but now we use solar energy to earn more money."

East Africa's immense underground heat is driving a green energy revolution, leading country after country down the road to 100 percent domestically produced renewable energy.

https://www.euronews.com/2022/11/14/che ... rmal-power
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East Africa's immense underground heat is driving a green energy revolution, leading country after country down the road to 100 percent domestically produced renewable energy.
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